When we think of ancient warfare, images of swords, shields, and catapults often come to mind. However, the Byzantine Empire introduced a weapon so fearsome and effective that it has become the stuff of legend: Greek Fire. This mysterious and deadly incendiary weapon was not only a marvel of ancient chemistry but also one of the earliest examples of chemical warfare.

A Flame That Defied Water

Greek Fire was a highly flammable liquid used primarily in naval battles by the Byzantine Empire from the 7th century onwards. What made this weapon particularly terrifying was its ability to continue burning even on water. Imagine the scene: Byzantine ships spewing forth streams of liquid fire that clung to enemy vessels, setting them ablaze while their crews desperately tried to extinguish the flames with no success. The sea, which should have been a refuge, became a deadly trap.

The Secret Recipe: Lost to History

The exact composition of Greek Fire remains one of history’s great mysteries. The Byzantines guarded the formula so closely that it was never recorded in any surviving documents. Even within the Empire, only a few trusted individuals knew how to prepare it. This secrecy ensured that the weapon remained unique to the Byzantines, and its formula was lost to history when the Empire eventually fell.

Despite numerous theories, the precise ingredients of Greek Fire are still debated. Most historians agree that it likely included naphtha, a flammable oil derived from crude oil or tar. Quicklime (calcium oxide) is also believed to have been a key ingredient, as it reacts exothermically with water, potentially causing the intense, unquenchable flames that Greek Fire was known for. Other possible components include sulfur and resin, which would have made the mixture sticky and difficult to remove once it made contact with a target.